| Writing for business |
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| Monday, 29 June 2009 07:43 |
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Writing for Business Instructions Test Yourself offers 10 multiple choice questions to help you see what you've learned and identify areas that you might want to explore further. Each response to a question generates immediate feedback—for both correct and incorrect answers. Scoring When you complete the 10 questions, click on the Finish button to go to a Scorecard page that gives you your score plus a summary of all the questions and responses. A link at the end of the questions directs you back to relevant content in the topic. Keeping a record of your score Once you click out of the Test Yourself section, your answers and final score will be deleted. If you want to keep a record of how you performed on the test, print a copy of your Scorecard. Getting started Click on the Next button below. Test Yourself Question 1: Which of the following topics would be best served by a broadly-scoped report? Communicating the findings of a task force on pricing to your company's top management. Informing a newly formed task force about pricing issues facing your company. Convincing a sales team of the need to create a pricing task force at your company. Отговор 2 е верен Good choice. In this case, your purpose is to get the readers up to speed on the issues. This audience would want to know as much as possible about the subject since the task force will be reviewing the issue in detail. As a writer, you must determine how broad or limited the scope of your document should be, given your purpose and your audience; in this case, a broad scope would provide the readers with the background they need. Question 2: What is meant by the phrase "reader-centered writing"? "Reader-centered writing" means writing to the reader as if you were speaking face-to-face. "Reader-centered writing" means considering a reader's needs at every step of the writing process. "Reader-centered writing" means repeating the purpose for writing throughout a document to reinforce the rationale in readers' minds. Отговор 2 верен Good choice. Reader-centered writing means considering your readers' needs at every step of the writing process, or, in other words, writing from the readers' point of view. Imagining that you are the various readers helps you anticipate the kinds of questions they might have about your topic. Thinking from the readers' perspective also helps you avoid the chief complaint business readers have—that they don't know what the writer wants from them. Question 3: Which of the following is a recommended strategy for writing a first draft? Start at the beginning of the document and systematically work your way through your outline. Break your document into categories and work through each one at your own pace. Break your document into sections, and perfect each section before starting to work on the next one. Отговор 2 Good choice. The task of writing an important document can seem daunting when you don't have a method of breaking it down into manageable parts. Your writing is sure to improve when you begin to look at writing as a series of smaller tasks, and work through each one at your own pace. Question 4: Which of the following statements illustrates a common style error made by many writers? "This customer-focused strategy can give us a big lead on the competition." "Developing a stand-alone distribution channel rather than using our existing shipping center could save us up to 30% on our annual costs." "It is essential that you keep in mind that this solution was designed and developed by the chief engineer." Отговор 3 Good choice. This sentence has two instances of overuse of the passive voice. The statement would have more impact if it simply read: "Please note that the chief engineer designed and developed this solution." Question 5: Lengthy sentences can be cumbersome or cause your reader to lose the key message. What is a good guideline for sentence length? About 20 words. About 25 to 30 words. 15 words or fewer. Отговор 1 Good choice. It's a good idea to limit sentences to about 20 words, and paragraphs to about six lines. While that may seem quite low, if you review your first draft, you'll find that it is not difficult to break one sentence into two and add white space every five to six lines. Question 6: Which of the following is not a recommended start-up strategy? Brainstorm outline. Craft an excellent first sentence. Traditional outline. Отговор 2 Good choice. Spending time crafting an excellent first sentence is not a recommended strategy. It makes more sense to use a strategy that helps you develop a structure for the document. The four recommended strategies include: (1) the traditional outline, (2) a brainstorm outline, (3) imagining yourself in the reader's shoes and answering the questions you would ask, and (4) free writing. Question 7: Since e-mail is widespread and easy to use, it's tempting to fall into the trap of sending e-mails back and forth endlessly with a team member to resolve an issue instead of making the effort to communicate verbally. At what point should you stop e-mailing and start communicating face-to-face, or at least by phone? In general, no more than four exchanges. After two exchanges. If the issue is unresolved in three business days. Отговор 1 Good choice. If you find you've been e-mailing back and forth with a coworker or team member several times, this could be a clue that you're avoiding a resolution or making a decision. Discuss the issue in person or on the phone. Question 8: You are preparing to write a paragraph of average length. How many subjects should you include? Only one. More than four. Between two and four. Отговор 3 Good choice. Effective writers include between two and four subjects in an average-length paragraph. Inserting more than four subjects in an average paragraph will likely confuse your reader. While limiting the number of subjects is a good idea, making all of the subjects in your paragraphs the same may make your writing sound too simple. Question 9: You have been asked to write a memo describing the flow of information during the review cycle of an upcoming project. Which organizational method would better suit your purpose: procedure or process? Process, describing who does what and what happens. Procedure, using a sequenced set of steps beginning with action verbs, similar to a recipe. Either will accomplish the objective. Отговор 1 Good choice. The clue that process is the better choice can be found by examining the task requested. The request was to describe a flow of information, rather than how to accomplish a job. A procedure is appropriate when you need to write a sequenced set of steps to explain how to accomplish a specific task. Question 10: Jane is planning a memo that will ask her readers to stay late for an after-work meeting next week. She knows that the majority of the people who will receive this memo will be resistant to her request. Where should she put the key message? Right at the beginning to make her point. Somewhere in the middle, using the beginning of the document to set the context of her request. In the subject line only; use the content of the memo to persuade and convince the readers. Отговор 2 Good choice. Holding back the key message initially is the recommended choice for a memo in which the readers may be resistant to it. When you know that your readers may be resistant, build a context for the needed action. In this case, Jane should use the beginning of the memo to describe the situation. After she has convinced her readers of the importance of having a meeting the following week, and of the scheduling issues that make a workday meeting impossible, she should ask her participants to attend. Topic Summary This topic contains relevant information on how to: • Organize your document according to your readers’ needs • Employ a variety of strategies for jump-starting your writing assignments • Apply editing and design principles to heighten the impact of your message Topic Map Topic Overview What Would You Do? Topic Map Topic Summary About the Mentor Using the Topic Core Concepts Business Writing Basics Scoping Your Project Using Start-up Strategies Organizing Material According to Purpose Writing the First Draft Structuring Paragraphs Editing for Content Editing for Style Drafting E-mail Steps Steps for Planning Your Writing Task Steps for Editing for Content Steps for Editing for Style Tips Tips for Using the Order of Importance Method Tips for Using the Compare and Contrast Method Tips for Writing an E-mail Message Tips for Writing a Business Memo Tips for Writing a Business Letter Tips for Writing a Proposal Tools Focus Sheet™ Document Organizing Guide Designing for Visual Impact Reference Guide "Be Your Own Editor" Checklist Test Yourself Instructions To Learn More Online Articles Articles Books About the Mentor Deborah Dumaine Deborah Dumaine is the president and founder of Better Communications, a learning company that delivers globally recognized business, leadership, technical, financial, and sales writing workshops. Since 1978, 86,000 learners have attended Better Communications’ workshops. Ms. Dumaine is the author of Write to the Top: Writing for Corporate Success, recently revised and republished by Random House, and of The Instant-Answer Guide to Business Writing (iUniverse). She also has contributed sections on business writing to the World Book Encyclopedia. Ms. Dumaine holds B.A. and M.A. degrees from Smith College. For further information, please see her Web site at www.writetothetop.com. What Would You Do? Cindy's co-workers were usually supportive, but lately they weren't following through on her requests. She didn't understand why. Two weeks ago, when she e-mailed the conference summary to the team, she had included a note scheduling a Friday morning team meeting. When Friday arrived, however, only two people showed up. A week later, Cindy e-mailed everyone again—this time about monthly reports. In her message she included a note about executives visiting their staff meetings. The group acted surprised when the vice president of Corporate Sales attended the next meeting. Were her teammates ignoring her? Or was she simply not getting through to them? What would you do? What Could You Do? Cindy may not be connecting with her teammates because she's trying to convey too much information in her e-mails. As a general rule, each message should cover only one topic. If the e-mail covers multiple topics and is lengthy, readers may get lost and not read the entire e-mail. Cindy should also make the purpose of the message clear—both in the subject line and the beginning of the message itself. If she wants people to attend a meeting, call that to their attention immediately. Last but not least, Cindy should make her e-mails concise—brevity is usually in everybody's best interest. In this topic, you'll learn how to organize your thoughts, write a complete first draft, and make your everyday e-mails, memos, and reports useful, logical, and compelling. Using the Topic Topic Structure The content for Writing For Business is divided into the sections listed below. Links to these sections appear across the top of your screen. Topic Overview Click Topic Overview for an introduction to the topic. Review a hypothetical situation, What Would You Do?, followed by a possible solution, What Could You Do? The Topic Map provides a "site map" with links to all the elements within the topic. Core Concepts Click Core Concepts for a comprehensive presentation of the main ideas in the topic. Learn guidelines that will help you effectively communicate your message to your audience. These principles will assist you throughout the process, from generating ideas to polishing what you have written. Steps Click Steps for procedures that can help you plan your writing task and edit for content and style. Tips Click Tips for quick advice on how to write e-mails, memos, letters, and proposals. Tools Click Tools for forms to help you: focus on what you need to say; organize your material; get the most out of visual design; and edit your document for clarity, style, and conciseness. Test Yourself Click Test Yourself to see what you’ve learned. You will receive immediate feedback on your choices. A summary page provides links to reference material. To Learn More Click To Learn More to read two articles related to the topic. You will also find an annotated list of articles and other resources. Topic Navigation To navigate through the topic, click the links at the top and on the left of your screen. When you click a link at the top of the screen, the links on the left will change. For a comprehensive, linear path through the topic, follow these steps: • Visit each section in the topic by clicking the links at the top, from left to right. • Review the information within each section by clicking the links on the left, from top to bottom. • In the Tools section, click on an icon to open a tool. You can print a copy of the tool to use offline. Or, you can complete the tool online and save it to your hard drive. • Finish by taking the quiz in Test Yourself and reading the Online Articles in To Learn More. ________________________________________ Business Writing Basics Effective business writing rests on a foundation of basic principles. Master them, and you'll know how to handle the many different writing tasks that come your way. Clarify your purpose for writing When setting out to write a business document, the first thing you should ask yourself is: "What is my reason for writing this document?" Business writing aims to serve many purposes, such as: • Explain or justify actions: "Since all of the bids we received from our current vendors were high, we decided to reject them and seek others." • Convey information: "Management wants all employees to know that quarterly sales of the new product exceeded expectations." • Influence the reader: "The engineering team can meet these deadlines." • Deliver good or bad news: "Unfortunately, the engine fire you reported occurred one day after the expiration of the warranty." • Request action: "The design team should complete and deliver the product specifications by May 1." Keep your purpose top of mind as you begin writing. Many writers, in attending to the mundane tasks of preparing a document, lose track of their purpose. To help you stay on course, jot your purpose down at the beginning of your draft as a reminder and refer back to it as you proceed. When you finish your draft, review it to make sure it fulfills your initial purpose. Take a "reader-centered" approach Just as a company won't connect with its customers if it fails to consider their needs and attitudes, you won't connect with your readers if you don't understand them, their desires, and how they prefer to receive information. Thinking, drafting, organizing, and editing from your readers' points of view improves clarity and drives action. When readers understand what you are trying to convey to them and what their next steps should be, it makes their jobs easier. Why is having a reader-centered approach important? Consider this true story of a company that failed to analyze its audience when writing what seemed to be a simple postcard announcing a change of address. Neglecting to put itself in its readers' shoes, the company forgot to include one of the most vital pieces of information: the date of the move. Customers knew where to reach the company, but not when they should use the new address. See also the Harvard ManageMentor topic Making a Presentation: Setting Up Your Presentation. State your key message clearly Once you identify the purpose of your document and have considered your audience, your next task is to isolate the key message you want your readers to remember. This message should be clear and concise—usually only one or two sentences. For example, "In order to meet our customer's delivery deadline, we must complete the product design by May 1." In many cases, your key message will be stated at or near the very beginning of your document, and the rest of the document will be used to flesh out the details and to answer the question "Why?" or "What are the implications of what I am proposing?" Stick to one topic per document to optimize your document's clarity. If you find that you have two unrelated key messages, write two different documents. Keep your message short and simple Busy readers appreciate concise documents. In fact, shorter is better if the document still communicates the required information. Keeping your document short ensures that your key message stands out. Economy of words also saves your readers valuable time. Consider the following example: "At her boss's suggestion, and with the help of corporate counsel, Joan wrote an apologetic letter to the five disgruntled customers who threatened to sue." As a writer, your challenge is to know when a sentence has reached its optimal carrying capacity. In the preceding example sentences, knowledge of the audience is a useful guide. Do the readers need to know that Joan's boss suggested the letter or that corporate counsel was brought in? Is the fact that there were five disgruntled customers or that they threatened to sue relevant? If these bits of information are not necessary, consider cutting them. Your sentence would then read: "Joan wrote an apologetic letter to the disgruntled customers." Confirm your delivery strategy Effective writers know that even a well-written document will lose its impact if it doesn't come from the right person, at the right time, and in the right format. Before you begin writing, consider from whom the communication should come. Should it come from you? Your boss? The entire team? The choice is bound to make a difference in reader impact. Also consider whether you are writing your document too early or too late. If you write too early, people won't be ready to focus on the issue you're raising. If you wait too long, you'll lose the opportunity to make a suggestion or prevent a problem. Finally, the format of your writing will also affect its impact. Consider your purpose, your audience, and the information you want to convey when choosing a format. For example, to disseminate the findings of a customer satisfaction survey, you could send an e-mail summary of the report to the entire company and provide details on how to obtain the entire report. You might also invite management and other key parties to a presentation of the study's findings. Deciding on the ideal format for your communication requires thought. Even if you use a written format, you may find that supplementing a document with verbal communication will help you obtain the greatest impact. See also Focus SheetTM. Scoping Your Project Before you begin writing any document, you should first scope your project. Scoping means determining the breadth of your subject and how deeply you will cover it. If you do a good job of scoping, you will save yourself and your audience a lot of unnecessary time and work. Broad versus limited scope When considering the scope of any project, you can look at your subject either broadly or narrowly. For example, a report with a broad scope on weaknesses in your company's marketing function might include: • How marketing contributes to corporate goals • Historic development of the company's marketing department • Marketing's human resources • Areas of specific performance problems • Potential solutions A limited-scope version of this topic would focus on only one or two areas and might include: • Two areas of underperformance: dealer support and promotions • Suggested remedies As a writer, you must determine how broad or limited the scope of your document should be, given your purpose and your audience. In the case of the marketing report just described, you might take a very broad approach if your purpose is to provide information to a task force assigned to study the department and potential solutions. That audience would want to know as much as possible about the department. On the other hand, you'd probably use the limited-scope alternative if you were communicating to senior management about the task force's actual findings. In this case your audience would be most interested in the specifics about the problems you've identified and your recommended solutions. Using Start-up Strategies For many managers, one of the hardest parts of the writing process is simply getting started. After you scope your project, begin by identifying the topics you want to cover in your document. There are several strategies for accomplishing this task. Questioning One way to get started is to write down the questions your readers might have about your topic. This method helps you ensure that your document tells readers what they need to know. It also helps you anticipate readers' responses to your document. For example, Gillian has to write a memo introducing a weekly interdepartmental meeting of employees collaborating on a new product launch. Trying to anticipate her readers' concerns, she produces the following questions: • Why are we having these new meetings? • What will be on the agenda? • What do I need to prepare for the meetings? By turning those questions into affirmative statements, Gillian can create the list of points she'll want to cover in her memo. For example: "For the first meeting, please come prepared with your unit's work plans." When using this method, consider your knowledge of the audience's interests and concerns. If you are not familiar with your audience, enlist someone with that familiarity to augment your list of anticipated questions. The traditional outline Another strategy for starting your writing is to use a traditional outline. This method seems to work best for those who are able to picture a logical structure for a document before writing it. It is especially useful if you are an inexperienced writer, or if you need to cover a complex subject. A traditional outline uses letters and Roman and Arabic numerals to indicate levels of information. 1. Uppercase Roman numeral, period I. 2. Capital letter, period A. 3. Arabic numeral, period 1. 4. Lowercase letter, period a. 5. Arabic numeral in parentheses (1) 6. Lowercase letter in parentheses (a) 7. Lowercase Roman numeral in parentheses (i) For most business documents, three levels of headings (Roman numerals, capital letters, and Arabic numerals) should be sufficient. Once you have an outline, ask yourself: • Are all the topics and subtopics I need to cover listed here? • Are they arranged in a logical sequence? • Is there a clear beginning, middle, and ending? Once you are satisfied with the logic and flow of your outline, begin fleshing out each line to create your document. The brainstorm outline The brainstorm outline is a free-form technique for jotting down ideas as fast as they come into your head. The free-association encouraged by the brainstorm outline helps boost your creativity. It is a particularly useful method when writing with a group, since it captures everyone's ideas at the beginning of the process. To create a brainstorm outline: • Draw a circle in the middle of a sheet of paper. • Write your purpose inside the circle. Remember, your purpose is the reason you're writing the document. Keep it simple: start with the word "to" and include an action verb such as "persuade." • As you think of ideas related to your topic, draw lines from the circle, like spokes of a wheel, and write each idea on a line. • If an idea inspires other ideas related to it, draw more lines off from that line and write your ideas on them. • If an idea comes to you that is entirely separate from the ideas you've written so far, draw a new line from the center circle. • Continue to generate ideas, drawing lines from the center circle and from other lines. Take care to define the main idea categories that come out of the center circle. Once you have them organized, those ideas are the topics you'll want to cover in your writing. Free writing When you have writer's block, also known as "blank screen syndrome," free writing is often the best solution. Like the brainstorm outline, free writing lets your imagination roam, thus facilitating the expression of great ideas, whether on paper or on screen. The most important rule to remember about free writing is that there are no rules. To use the free-writing method: • Put pen to paper or fingers to keyboard and let your mind wander. • Write down anything that comes into your head, even if it has nothing to do with your writing topic. • Free write for at least 10 minutes to get the ideas flowing. • When you get stuck, write that down, too. Don't stop. • Don't edit your work. If you're working at your computer, darkening the screen may help to keep you from editing prematurely. When you've finished free writing, read what you've set down, highlighting important points and ideas. Then organize those points into logical categories, just as you would in a traditional or brainstorming outline or its brainstorming counterpart. See also the Online Article: "Ayn Rand on Writing." Organizing Material According to Purpose What you write must be logically organized—otherwise, it won't accomplish the purpose you intended. By choosing the most appropriate organizing method, you can make your message clearer to your reader. To start, consider the needs and preferences of your audience. Select an organization method by asking, and answering, questions such as the following: • What is my bottom line? • Is my reader likely to be receptive or resistant? • What might my reader want to know right away? Order of importance method Writers often use a "bottom line on top" (BLOT) approach for many internal documents. When you put the most critical information at the beginning of a document, you are helping busy readers see your most important message quickly. See also Tips for Using the Order of Importance Method. Chronological method The chronological method of development describes a topic by listing events in the order in which they occurred. It is useful for content that includes information such as the history of a product's development. When using this method: • Stick to major, consequential facts. • Use visual design to highlight important information, such as your key message, which may get lost in this method of development. • Avoid beginning each sentence with a date if there are more than five dates. Process and procedure methods The process and procedure methods method are both useful for instructions and user manuals. A process describes, in overview terms, who does what and what happens (or will happen) in stages. Since these stages occur independently of the reader, use the third person to describe them. For example: "An invoice goes first to the department that incurred the expense for approval, then it moves to accounting for payment." A procedure provides action steps that the reader can actually do, in the order needed to accomplish the goal. Since a procedure is an arranged set of steps, present it in the same way you would a recipe or instructions for installing software. Use the second person when describing steps, and begin each step with an action verb. For example, "Date stamp the invoice," or "Tear off the pink copy for your departmental records." When using either of these methods: • Put formal procedures in a table and number each step. • Present the stages or steps in a process or procedure in the precise order in which they occur. Spatial arrangement method This spatial arrangement method is useful for trip reports, descriptions of machinery, and sales research reports. Think of it as a two- or three-dimensional map that helps your readers understand your message by taking them on a journey through your topic. For example, to explain a company's sales territory plan you might first describe opportunities in Los Angeles, then new customers in Newark, and finally government prospects in Washington, D.C. When using this method: • Create a coherent and concrete order that's easy to follow, such as left to right, top to bottom, or exterior to interior. • Use detail to create a visual image for your readers as you move them from space to space. • Make a conscious effort to engage your readers by varying sentences and substituting new phrases for overused ones. Compare and contrast method The compare and contrast method demonstrates how concepts are similar or different. It works well for feasibility studies, research results, and planning reports. It is especially effective when you want to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of two possibilities. For example, to make a recommendation for a new downtown office location after studying two possibilities, you could present your findings in this sequence: • Advantages—Site A and Site B • Disadvantages—Site A and Site B See also Tips for Using the Compare and Contrast Method. Specific-to-general or general-to-specific method The specific-to-general or general-to-specific method is useful for work orders, training materials, and customer service letters. The key question to ask yourself when using either of these approaches is: "How much does my reader already know?" Once you've answered the question, begin your document with information familiar to the reader. For example, when announcing a requirement that all department heads revise their monthly budgets, use a specific-to-general method of developing the memo you will send to the accounting department. Since the accounting team initiated the requirement, structure their communication by first restating the details of the revisions they requested and then address the effect of the revisions company-wide more broadly. For all other departments, draft individual memos that move from a top-level description of the requirement to the specific changes each group must implement to provide a revised budget. Be sure to explain key terms that may be unfamiliar along the way. When using this method: • Determine how much your reader already knows about the subject. • Begin your document with information familiar to your reader. • Move from specific to general for readers familiar with your topic. • Move from general to specific for readers not familiar with your topic. • Place your key message on top whenever possible. Analytical method To use the analytical method, start by formulating a hypothesis and then rigorously test its truth through a questioning process. This method is useful for technical reports, annual reports, and financial analyses. When using this method: • Be sure to include every aspect of your hypothesis to avoid being discredited—or worse, making a bad business decision. • Analyze your data for similarities, differences, logical links, implications, and suggested actions. • Simplify technical language for the nontechnical reader, especially when writing a company report intended for the general public. See also Document Organizing Guide. Writing the First Draft When you sit down to write your first draft, remember: It's more important to get it written than to get every detail right! The first draft can be rough in sentence structure, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. It's for your eyes only. Getting it down in rough form has two benefits. First, it gets your mind focused on the key ideas you will want to include in your document. Second, since you will have only a small investment in a rough draft, you will likely feel more comfortable changing the order of your material—or even discarding it altogether. Begin where you feel most comfortable There's no rule that says you must start at the very beginning. Keep your outline or plan in front of you, and use it to decide where you feel most comfortable starting to write. Most experienced writers save the introductory material until the end; it is often easier to compose an engaging opening paragraph once you know what your conclusions are. Choose a headline, for example, and write a paragraph for it. When you've finished that, choose the next item you're comfortable writing, and so on. Stop periodically to compare your draft to your plan. Write in "categories" The task of writing an important letter can seem daunting when you don't have a method of breaking it down into manageable parts. Your writing is sure to improve if you look at it as a series of smaller tasks. Categories that frequently appear in business letters, memos, and e-mail include: • Announcement of a change • Background information • Implementation plan • Deadline • Explanation of a process • Results • Conclusions • Recommendations • Observations • Proposed actions • Request for action • Evaluation Standard parts of a formal proposal include: • Title page • Table of contents • Executive summary • Introduction • Statement of customer needs • Proposed procedures (or technical plan) • Benefits of the plan • Impact of the plan • Implementation plan • Qualifications • Cost analysis (or your investment) • Statement of agreement • Appendix Special considerations for a technical document When writing a technical document for a nontechnical audience, spend extra time analyzing your audience. Be sure that you can accurately answer the question, "How much does the audience already understand about this topic?" One method that has proved helpful for many writers is using two columns. In one column, write the information for a technical reader. In the other, simplify and condense the information for the nontechnical reader. Structuring Paragraphs Paragraphs are the essential building blocks of any document. They introduce topics, and, in some cases, signal to readers that another step in an argument has begun. As such, paragraphs guide the reader, but they also help you as a writer keep your thinking clear and concise. Limit the number of subjects in each paragraph The control of subjects throughout your paragraphs is key to giving your readers a sense of coherence and simplicity. Typically, a paragraph will have from three to a dozen sentences. Each of these sentences will have a subject. Be careful to keep the number of subjects used in one paragraph to a minimum. Employing more than three or four subjects in an average paragraph will likely confuse your reader. Remember, however, that while limiting the number of subjects is a good idea, making all of the subjects within a single paragraph exactly the same may make your writing sound too simple—and even condescending in some cases. Create smooth transitions As you construct your paragraphs, think about how each one fits into the larger document. Smooth transitions between paragraphs and the sentences within paragraphs can help readers see the linkage between ideas and the development of an argument. Consider the following transitional sentence (in italics): "Proponents of expanding restaurant seating have failed to provide any estimates of construction, operating costs, and taxes. Without those estimates, any attempt to evaluate their proposal will be a waste of time. Even if construction costs were reasonable and manageable for the operation, we would still be facing a high level of revenue uncertainty. No one knows how a doubling of seating will affect annual revenues. Is it reasonable to assume that revenues will double, or is a 75% increase a more likely figure?" These example paragraphs include two very different issues: the cost of expanding an existing restaurant, and how revenues might grow if such expansion were made. The transition statement provides readers with a smooth path between construction costs and revenue issues. Between sentences, words or phrases can accomplish the same type of connection as the sentence above. Consider the following example of a transition (in italics): "Our inventory managers have kept a tight lid on stocks or finished goods. Consequently, working capital requirements have dropped by eight percent." In this case, the term, consequently, establishes a causal relationship between the two sentences. Other useful transitions include: as a result, in addition, likewise, meanwhile, for example, finally, on the other hand, furthermore, and nevertheless. Editing for Content When you write your first draft, your goal is to make sure that you have set forth all of your key ideas in a logical manner. Once you complete that draft, your next task is to edit its content. The first editing pass is for finalizing the structure, logic, and message of your document. Put your message in focus Writers often lose focus because they are unclear about what they want to say. If a writer is unclear, how can readers be expected to understand? Another common mistake many writers make is focusing on their own agendas and neglecting their readers' needs. To avoid these common problems, review your first draft and ask yourself: • Did I state my key message clearly? • Did I include all of the information my readers will need to understand what they need to do? If the answer to either of these questions is no, review what you have already identified as your purpose, audience, and bottom line. Edit your document to address your audience's requirements and to clearly state your key message. Review for clarity As you read your first draft, consider whether your purpose is easy to find and understand. Also review for precision and scope of content. As you edit for clarity, ask yourself these questions: • Is my information accurate? • Is my information complete? • Did I label requests for action and deadlines so that they will be obvious to the reader? • Did I headline next steps? Sequence your key message strategically Another element to watch for in your draft is the location of your key message. What is the one thing you want your reader to remember? In most cases, you want to position this information at the top of your document. When the key message is buried, it is likely that your reader may skim right over it. If you've determined that your reader will probably be unreceptive to your ideas, position your key message strategically—where it will have the best chance of being read and considered. You may find it makes more sense to build a context for your key message before introducing it. Answer your readers' question: "Why?" Your document should state not only your key message, but should also explain to the reader why it is important. For example, if your key message is that you need more time to complete work on a project, don't just stop once you've explained your need. Answer the "Why?" question by including the following: • What will happen if you don't get the extra time • Who your extension will affect • How an extension will impact other projects you're working on • How your reader(s) will be affected When writing your document, be sure to include a clear statement of the impact of your key message in terms relevant to your audience. For example, instead of simply stating: "Option A is better than Option B," write: "Option A is better than Option B because it will save us 30% of our annual overhead costs." Editing for Style Once you're satisfied that you have all the raw materials for an effective, action-oriented message, concentrate on refining and energizing your delivery. Design for visual impact Clear, accurate, and consistent writing alone is not enough. A reader needs to be able to glance at your document and find the key ideas without searching through a lot of dense prose. When a document is easy to read and key points jump out, it has visual impact. Take the time to create a visual structure that entices your audience. Using visual enhancements can make a message stand out from the hundreds that regularly bombard readers. But be careful when using e-mail or any electronic document, as your reader may not have the formatting capabilities or programs required to open your document in the format in which you composed it, or even open it at all. The following are examples of visual enhancements: • Headlines that highlight your most important points • Sentences that are no more than 20 words long • Short paragraphs and groups of sentences—5 to 6 lines maximum • Adequate white space • Bold and italic typeface that make important information stand out • Bullets or numbers for lists, even those within sentences • Tables to organize information into groups Match your tone to your audience The tone of your writing will impact how your reader views what you have to say. For example, an informal tone may be appropriate for a colleague you know well, but would not be appropriate for a client or a supervisor. The type of language you use in your message will also impact your readers' understanding. Many writers use obscure or outdated language because they think it will make them sound more intelligent. For the same reason, many writers choose the longer, more complicated word or phrase over the shorter, simpler word. There's nothing wrong with wanting to sound intelligent. But clarity and simplicity—not overblown language—will better accomplish your objective. For example, instead of writing: "We will convene an advance planning meeting, brief in duration, to consolidate together the work assigned to Nancy's committee before they forge onward." Write: "We will meet briefly to consolidate Nancy's committee's work before the group continues." Check for conciseness Just as your tone should be direct, the structure of your sentences and paragraphs should be concise. As your review for conciseness, ask yourself these questions: • Did I limit my paragraphs to 6 lines? • Did I focus my paragraphs on one thought only? • Did I limit my sentences to 15 to 20 words? • Did I eliminate as many unnecessary words as I could? See also the Online Article: "Five Quick Ways to Trim Your Writing." Adopt the active voice Consider the following sentence: "The passive voice is used by too many writers." What's wrong with it? It's written in the passive voice. A sentence with more impact would read: "Too many writers use the passive voice." The key difference between active and passive sentences is that an active sentence has an active participant doing something. Usually, you can detect a passive sentence by considering its verb: passive sentences always contain some form of the verb "to be" plus another verb. For example, "The meeting is held in the large conference room." Edit for accuracy An accurate document uses correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Avoid relying solely on your computer's spell-check feature—it won't catch mistakes like using their in the place of there or affect for effect. Ask a coworker whose writing you admire to check vital documents. Drafting E-mail It's so easy to send an e-mail that, at times, it doesn't seem like writing at all. But e-mail is a form of correspondence that requires the same kind of attention that business letters, memos, and reports receive. Common problems In more and more companies, e-mail has become the dominant method of communication because it's fast, easy, and inexpensive. Unfortunately, the speed and ease of e-mail have also created some problems for business writers and their companies, such as: • Employees send and receive time-wasting, unnecessary messages. • Many e-mails are poorly and hastily written. • Writers sometimes send messages that are emotional or inappropriate for a business setting. • Messages are occasionally misdirected or forwarded to unintended recipients—sometimes with negative consequences. • E-mails are often read too quickly so recipients miss important details. These problems can often be avoided by using common sense and some sound writing principles. Start with the subject line The subject line is the headline for your message, the lure that gets your reader interested and involved. Take the time to write a subject line that: • Contains the key message (e.g., "Sales meeting rescheduled to 3 p.m. on Friday") • Includes your desired action/response (e.g., "Comments needed by 4 p.m. today") • Is specific but not too long (e.g., "Lunch tomorrow?") • Allows your reader to file and retrieve your message easily (e.g., "John's global enterprise report") If your subject line is too general or vague, the reader may skip over it. If the subject line is blank, the reader may delete it. Remember: Busy people often receive 50 to 100 e-mail messages per day. To ensure that yours is opened and read, it should stand out. Cover one topic per e-mail Treat each e-mail as a coherent information packet—to ask a question, communicate your opinion, report news, etc. To achieve coherence, limit each e-mail to only one message. This approach has two major advantages: • Recipients can digest and respond to a single message more easily. • It enables the recipient to forward the message to another party without dragging along other messages—which may be highly inappropriate for that audience. Make the purpose of the message clear Convey your purpose to the reader immediately—in the subject line and at the start of the message. Let your reader know whether it's a call to action, a request for information, a passing on of information, or a recommendation. Be concise and use attachments Long e-mail messages require lots of annoying on-screen scrolling by the recipient. So keep your messages short. When you have a lengthy message to send, send it as an attachment instead of as e-mail text. Use the e-mail message to inform the reader what the attachment is and what the reader should do with it. Remember your audience When writing to your peers and friends, you can be as informal as you want. When writing to a superior or client, make your e-mail look like a brief professional memo. Adapt your tone and language to the reader. Keep your formatting simple In the e-mail environment, you can't control how a message will appear on the recipient's screen, so don't expect fancy formatting to be maintained in the transfer. For headlines or emphasis, capitalize all letters (however, don't send your entire message in all caps—that's considered shouting). Use white space to help the reader grasp the message quickly—too much text bunched together becomes difficult to read. Review your company's e-mail policy Despite its great convenience for businesses, e-mail may make a company vulnerable to lawsuits for harassment and libel. As a result, many companies have a policy that clearly outlines how e-mail should be used at work. Find out if your company has such a policy, so that you can be sure to comply with it. Know when not to send an e-mail E-mail may be the preferred form of communication in many organizations today, but it's not always the most effective or appropriate method. In addition to being consistent with your company's e-mail policies, consider the following suggestions: • Avoid sending private messages via e-mail. Call or meet the person for personal or confidential exchanges. • Arrange a face-to-face meeting when e-mail messages don't seem to be working effectively. If you keep sending messages back and forth without reaching a resolution, whether over a period of hours or a number of weeks, pick up the telephone and make an appointment to meet. A general guideline is to limit your e-mail exchanges to no more than four. • Delete mass mailings; don't forward them. Be particularly careful when expressing emotion in e-mail. Humor can be misunderstood, criticism may be misinterpreted, and angry feelings can be further inflamed. If you are unsure whether your intention will be understood, reconsider sending the message. A face-to-face meeting or phone call may be a better choice. ________________________________________ Steps for Planning Your Writing Task 1. Clarify your purpose for writing. Think carefully about what response you would like from your readers. What is your purpose for writing? You may want to: o Explain o Inform o Influence o Deliver o Request Consider making your purpose even more explicit by combining one of the above action verbs with detailed information. 2. Analyze your audience. Ask yourself the following questions about your audience: o Will my readers be receptive, indifferent, or resistant to my proposal? o What do my readers already know about the subject? o How much technical information do my readers understand? o What is my readers’ style, and how can I match it? o What’s in it for my readers? 3. Isolate and refine your bottom line. The bottom line is the one key message that you want your readers to remember. The sooner you can distill your key message into one or two sentences, the easier it will be to write your document. If you find that you have two unrelated key messages, write two documents. Stick to one topic per document to get optimal results from your reader. 4. Plan your writing strategy. As you think about your strategy, ask yourself these questions: o Am I the right person to communicate this information? o Do I need to include a separate cover letter with my document? o Which method of transmission should I use? E-mail? Courier? o Is the timing too early? Or is it too late to send the message at all? Steps for Editing for Content 1. Make sure that your message is audience-focused. One of the most common mistakes writers make is focusing on their own agendas and failing to address their reader’s needs. Review documents closely to ensure that the messages you’ve written incorporates your reader’s needs. 2. Review for clarity. Make your purpose—particularly action steps or deadlines for your reader—easy to find and understand. Also ensure that your writing is precise and that the scope of the content addressed is manageable. 3. Sequence your message strategically. For receptive readers, put your bottom line or key message at the top of the document. If you think that your reader may be unreceptive to your ideas, position your key message strategically—where it has the best chance of being read and considered. You may find it makes more sense to build a context for our key message before introducing it. 4. Be sure you answer the question, “Why?” Don’t skip this question—it’s your key to credibility. Make sure that your document explains exactly why your key message is important in terms that the reader will understand. Steps for Editing for Style 1. Design for visual impact. Take the time to create a visual structure that entices readers. Using visual impact appropriately can make a message stand out from the hundreds that regularly bombard readers. Help your readers process your document by using headlines, columns, tables, bold and italic typeface, bulleted and numbered lists, and plenty of white space. 2. Match your tone to your audience. The tone of your writing will impact how your reader views what you have to say. An informal tone may be appropriate for a colleague you know well, but would not be appropriate for a client or a supervisor. Additionally, the type of language you use to draft your message will impact your readers’ understanding. Choose words that will clarify your message—not cloud it. 3. Check for conciseness. State your message briefly but completely. 4. Adopt the active voice. Whenever possible, use the active voice to create powerful statements that drive action. The key difference between active and passive sentences is that an active sentence has “participant” actively doing something. For example, instead of writing: “The software was designed by the chief engineer,” write: “The chief engineer designed the software.” 5. Edit for accuracy. Proofread carefully to make sure your grammar, punctuation, and spelling won’t embarrass you. ________________________________________ Tips for Using the Order of Importance Method When you are writing for two or more readers, consider the probable reaction of the most important reader, usually the decision maker. Organize your document accordingly. For receptive readers, put your key message on top. For unreceptive or resistant readers, you may need to provide more context and background before stating your key message. Use the beginning of your document to convince your reader that your recommendation is a good one. Tips for Using the Compare and Contrast Method When comparing two subjects, mention the more familiar one first. Use graphs or charts to compare technical information. Avoid mixing statements about advantages and disadvantages in the same section. Be coherent in your comparisons by using key phrases, such as: “on one hand” and “on the other hand”; “the former” and “the latter”; and “in the same way” and “in opposition to this.” Tips for Writing an E-mail Message Put the key message in your subject line to ensure that your reader doesn’t delete your message. Keep your message short. Try to put all the pertinent information on the first screen. Cover only one topic per e-mail. Edit and spell-check your message before you send it. Never send e-mail when you're angry. A good test is to ask yourself if you would make your statement to the person's face. If not, don't send the message electronically. When forwarding a message, check the original subject line. Will the new reader understand the topic? If not, revise as needed. Include a closing. For external readers, use something simple such as "Sincerely" or "Regards." For internal messages, follow your organization's guidelines. Type in the recipient’s address just before you click "Send." This reduces the chance that you'll send an unfinished message or a message to the wrong person. Send e-mails only to people who need to receive them. Tips for Writing a Business Memo Cover only one topic per memo. Write a specific subject line. Use clear and specific headlines to highlight deadlines and action requests. Cluster related ideas into categories. Design your memo for visual impact. Use the active voice wherever possible. If you know your readers, your tone should be friendlier and less formal than in a business letter. Tips for Writing a Business Letter Begin on a personal note. In the first sentence, grab your readers’ attention with your key message. Keep sentence length to about 20 words. Use white space for easier scanning. Keep the length of a paragraph to about 5 to 6 lines. Use the active rather than the passive voice. Adopt a positive tone. For example, use your investment instead of fees or cost. Format your letter for visual impact. Toward the end, summarize your main points or suggest next steps for your readers. Don’t mention enclosures in your opening sentence. If you send enclosures with your letter, mention them later in the body. Avoid an overly formal style. If appropriate, add a brief note of friendliness or a personal touch in your closing. Tips for Writing a Proposal Before you begin, ask for a proposal planning session with the recipient in order to learn more about the company’s needs Make the focus of your proposal the customer. Tell your readers how your product or service will meet their needs. Don’t list all the features of your product or service, but match customer needs with your product’s benefits and impact on the customer’s business. Answer the "Why?" question. Be specific—the more concrete your information, the more real and workable your solution appears. Design your proposal for visual impact. make a workday meeting impossible, she should ask her participants to attend. |
